Military conflicts and anthropogenic accidents cause significant soil contamination with heavy metals, oil products, pesticides, and other toxic substances. The purpose of this study was to highlight the factors of influence of military-anthropogenic load on soils and to analyse the available methods of their remediation. The study summarised the available and promising phytoremediation methods with an assessment of their impact on soil contamination by chemicals that are typical pollutants during military conflicts. The study summarised, classified, and compared the groups of pollutants that are most common during military operations; analysed the impact of pollutants on the fertile soil layer and their mobility; and analysed the available remediation methods. It was found that the available soil remediation technologies, which can be used individually or in combination, provide the necessary tools to address the problem of chemical contamination of soils due to toxic products such as explosive derivatives and heavy metals. The degree of economic feasibility was considered, which, accordingly, suggested that soil phytoremediation may be the most economically feasible under certain conditions. This opens wide possibilities for further investigations, where the synergy of ecology, economics, and agrobiology will enable the development of mechanisms for optimising soil phytoremediation methods, considering their type, profile, and intended use. An algorithm of actions for remediation of soils as a result of military-anthropogenic load was proposed, which includes a related set of related actions on zoning, demining, assessment, and return of land to industrial use. The findings of this study can be used to clean industrial areas that have been contaminated during production processes or accidents
soil remediation, phytoremediation, anthropogenic impact, soil degradation, chemical soil pollution, energy-intensive substances, propellants
[1] Agrilab. (2022). Damaged soil: How to restore soil fertility after bombings and fires? Retrieved from https://www.agrilab.ua/poshkodzhena-zemlya-yak-vidnovyty-rodyuchist-gruntu-pislya-bombarduvan-ta-pozhezh.
[2] Akhavan, J. (2011). The chemistry of explosives. London: Royal Society of Chemistry.
[3] Althoff, P.S., & Thien, S.J. (2005). Impact of M1A1 main battle tank disturbance on soil quality, invertebrates, and vegetation characteristics. Journal of Terramechanics, 42(3-4), 159-176. doi: 10.1016/j.jterra.2004.10.014.
[4] Anderson, R.C., & Walker, L.R. (2000). Ecosystems of disturbed ground. Journal of Vegetation Science, 11(4), article number 615. doi: 10.2307/3246595.
[5] Angurets, O., Khazan, P., & Kolesnikova, К., Kushch, M., Chernokhova, M., & Gavranek, M. (2023). Ukraine, environmental damage, environmental consequences of the war. Retrieved from https://cleanair.org.ua/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/cleanair.org.ua-war-damages-ua-version-04-low-res.pdf.
[6] Arthur, J.D., Mark, N.W., Taylor, S., Šimunek, J., Brusseau, M.L., & Dontsova, K.M. (2017). Batch soil adsorption and column transport studies of 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) in soils. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 199, 14-23. doi: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2017.02.004.
[7] ATSDR. (n.d.). Toxicological profile for dinitrotoluenes. Retrieved from https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=847&tid=165.
[8] Averin, D. et al. (2024). The environmental consequences of the war against Ukraine . Preliminary twelve-month assessment (February 2022-February 2023). Mytholmroyd: Conflict and Environment Observatory.
[9] Beckmann, A., & Vykhor, B. (2022). Assessing the environmental impacts of the war in Ukraine. Retrieved from https://wwfcee.org/news/assessing-the-environmental-impacts-of-the-war-in-ukraine.
[10] Boretska, Iu., Dzhura, N., & Romaniuk, O. (2021). Phytoremediation of technogenically contaminated soils using energy crops. Ecological Sciences, 6, 72-76. doi: 10.32846/2306-9716/2021.eco.6-39.11.
[11] Certini, G., Scalenghe, R., & Woods, W.I. (2013). The impact of warfare on the soil environment. Earth-Science Reviews, 127, 1-15. doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.08.009.
[12] Commission Regulation (EU) No. 1881/2006 “On the Establishment of Maximum Levels of Certain Pollutants in Foodstuffs”. (2006, December). Retrieved from https://dpss.gov.ua/storage/app/sites/12/uploaded-files/sertifikati-na-eksport-z-ukrayini/metod-rekomend-aflotoksin-dod-4.pdf
[13] DeTata, D., Collins, P., & McKinley, A. (2013). An investigation into the fate of organic explosives in soil. Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, 45(1), 71-84. doi: 10.1080/00450618.2012.691548.
[14] Dudar, V. (2023). Explosive remnants of war and its impact on the environment. Retrieved from http://www.openforest.org.ua/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/dudar_vybukhonebezpechni-zalyshky-dovkillia.pdf.
[15] Gorecki, S., Nesslany, F., Hubé, D., Mullot, J.-U., Vasseur, P., Marchioni, E., Camel, V., Noël, L., Le Bizec, B., Guérin, T., Feidt, C., Archer, X., Mahe, A., & Rivière, G. (2017). Human health risks related to the consumption of foodstuffs of plant and animal origin produced on a site polluted by chemical munitions of the First World War. Science of the Total Environment, 599-600, 314-323. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.213.
[16] Hebert, R.M., & Jackovitz, A. (2015). Wildlife toxicity assessment for picric acid (2,4,6-Trinitrophenol). In Wildlife toxicity assessments for chemicals of military concern (pp. 271-277). Amsterdam: Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800020-5.00015-6.
[17] Integrated Risk Information System. (1990). Nitroguanidine CASRN 556-88-7. Retrieved from https://iris.epa.gov/static/pdfs/0402_summary.pdf.
[18] Integrated Risk Information System. (2005). Perchlorate and perchlorate salts CASRN 7790-98- 9. Retrieved from https://iris.epa.gov/ChemicalLanding/&substance_nmbr=1007.
[19] Iverson, R.M., Hinckley, B.S., Webb, R.M., & Hallet, B. (1981). Physical effects of vehicular disturbances on arid landscapes. Science, 212(4497), 915-917. doi: 10.1126/science.212.4497.915.
[20] Lipcomb, J.C. (Ed.). (2013). Provisional peer-reviewed toxicity values for trinitrophenylmethylnitramine. Cincinnati: US Environmental Protection Agency.
[21] Monteil-Rivera, F., Halasz, A., & Groom, C., Zhao, J.-S., Thiboutot, S., Ampleman, G., & Hawari, J. (2009). Fate and transport of explosives in the environment: A chemist’s view. In Eds. G. Sunahara, G. Lutofo, R. Kuperman & J. Hawari Ecotoxicology of explosives and unexploded ordnance (pp. 5-33). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
[22] Müller, C.R., de Araújo Pedron, F., Barbosa, B.W., Rodrigues, M.F., Gubiani, P.I., Dalmolin, R.S.D., & Schenato, R.B. (2022). Soil degradation after the traffic of a military combat vehicle leopard 1a5br. Ciência e Natura, 43, article number e87. doi: 10.5902/2179460x62685.
[23] Pennington, J.C., & Brannon, J.M. (2002). Environmental fate of explosives. Thermochimica Acta, 384(1-2), 163-172. doi: 10.1016/s0040-6031(01)00801-2.
[24] Pichtel, J. (2012). Distribution and fate of military explosives and propellants in soil: A review. Applied and Environmental Soil Science, 2012, article number 617236. doi: 10.1155/2012/617236.
[25] Reuveny, R., O’Keef, M.A.S., & Li, Q. (2010). The effect of warfare on the environment. Journal of Peace Research, 47(6), 749-761. doi: 10.1177/0022343310382069.
[26] Rock, S., Pivetz, B., Madalinski, K., Adams, N., & Wilson, T. (2000). Introduction to phytoremediation. Washington: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
[27] Ryu, H., Han, J.K., Jung, J.W., Bae, B., & Nam, K. (2007). Human health risk assessment of explosives and heavy metals at a military gunnery range. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 29(4), 259-269. doi: 10.1007/s10653-007-9101-5.
[28] Sijimol, M.R., Jyothy, S., Pradeepkumar, A.P., Chandran, M.S.S., Ghouse, S.S., & Mohan, M. (2015). Review on fate, toxicity, and remediation of perchlorate. Environmental Forensics, 16(2), 125-134. doi: 10.1080/15275922.2015.1022914.
[29] Technical Fact Sheet Perchlorate. (2014). Retrieved from https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-03/documents/ffrrofactsheet_contaminant_perchlorate_january2014_final.pdf.
[30] Temple, T., Ladyman, M., Mai, N., Galante, E., Ricamora, M., Shirazi, R., & Coulon, F. (2018). Investigation into the environmental fate of the combined Insensitive High Explosive constituents 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN), 1-nitroguanidine (NQ) and nitrotriazolone (NTO) in soil. Science of the Total Environment, 625, 1264-1271. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.264.
[31] Tsytsiura, Ya.G., Shkatula, Yu.M., Zabarna, T.A., & Pelekh, LV. (2022). Innovative approaches to phytoremediation and phytorecultivation in modern farming systems. Vinnytsia: Druk LLC.
[32] UNCG. (2022). Almost a third part of Ukrainian crops could be abandoned or inaccessible. Retrieved from https://uncg.org.ua/en/almost-a-third-ua-crops/.
[33] Urbansky, E.T. (2002). Perchlorate as an environmental contaminant. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 9(3), 187-192. doi: 10.1007/bf02987487.
[34] US Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental Research and Development Center. (2006). Distribution and fate of energetics on dod test and training ranges: Final report. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265599081_Distribution_and_Fate_of_Energetics_on_DoD_Test_and_Training_Ranges_Final_Report.
[35] Walker, L. (1999). Ecosystems of disturbed ground. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science & Technology Books.
[36] Williams, M. (2015). Wildlife toxicity assessment for nitrocellulose. In Wildlife toxicity assessments for chemicals of military concern (pp. 217-226). Amsterdam: Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800020-5.00011-9.
[37] Yost, S. L., Pennington, J.C., Brannon, J.M., & Hayes, C.A. (2007). Environmental process descriptors for TNT, TNT-related compounds and picric acid in marine sediment slurries. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54(8), 1262-1266. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.019.
[38] Zhao, Q.J. (Ed.). (2020). Provisional peer-reviewed toxicity values for picric acid (2,4,6-Trinitrophenol) and ammonium picrate. Washington: US Environmental Protection Agency.